RHETORICAL CONCEPTS
Rhetoric is the ancient art of argumentation and discourse. Below we discuss three rhetorical concepts to help you better analyze the way rhetoric works.
RHETORICAL APPEALS
The earliest known studies of rhetoric come from the Golden Age when philosophers of ancient Greece discussed logos, ethos, and pathos. The three basic approaches—three Rhetorical Appeals—one can use to make a convincing argument.
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Logos - using logical arguments such as induction and deduction
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Pathos - creating an emotional reaction in the audience
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Ethos - projecting a trustworthy, authoritative, or charismatic image
In addition to balancing logic, emotion, and charisma, it is important to tailor the argument, tone, and approach for the specific audience. Consider using schemes and tropes as you further develop your rhetorical appeals. Adapting your argument takes into account the assumptions of that audience and analyzes the spoken and unspoken assumptions behind a specific line of argument.
THE ARGUMENT & THE AUDIENCE
Sometimes, it is difficult to figure out where to go with your argument. Aristotle in the Ars Rhetorica listed several inventio or "invention techniques." These techniques can help generate ideas while brainstorming and possibly develop individual paragraphs. Be warned that these techniques are not a panacea (a solution for all difficulties). Some work better than others in specific essays and arguments. For instance, when discussing whether or not healthcare should cover myofascial massage, it may be important to define what exactly a myofascial massage is, and how particular HMOs (Health Maintenance Organization) categorize it. The reader probably doesn't know that material. On the other hand, when writing an essay on automobiles, the reader probably doesn't need the word "car" defined. Use your best judgment concerning when to use each technique, or ask a peer what he or she thinks.
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When developing your argument be careful to avoid using fallacies. Fallacies are statements that might sound reasonable or superficially true but are actually flawed or dishonest. When readers detect them, these logical fallacies backfire by making the audience think the writer is A) unintelligent or B) deceptive. It is important to avoid them in your own arguments, and it is also important to be able to spot them in others' arguments so a false line of reasoning won't fool you. Think of this as intellectual kung-fu: the vital art of self-defense in a debate. For extra impact, learn both the Latin terms and the English equivalents. You can click here to download a PDF version of this material.
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As you write each of your essays, you will need to assess your audience and anticipate possible objections to the argument you are developing. When in an argument, people often attack their opponents or insult them. That tendency may be a natural human reaction, but it certainly doesn't help you convince the audience. A far better strategy is to be respectful and polite toward the audience—especially those who disagree with your argument. Develop your argumentative skills by completing the Audience Assessment Activity.
Fallacies of Omission
Fallacies of Relevance
Component Fallacies
Fallacies of Ambiguity
rhetorical ANALYSIS
Some logicians call it "critical reading." Others call it "close reading," or "active reading," or a host of other terms. All these labels refer to the same general process. Let’s talk about what critical reading really means.
The act of reading to extract information and reading critically are vastly different. Reading to extract information allows a student to absorb the raw materials of factual information as quickly as possible. It is a type of reading we all must engage in frequently. However, each type of reading calls for different mental habits. If we do not learn to adjust from one type of reading to another when necessary, we cripple our intellectual abilities to read critically. If we cannot read critically, we cannot reach the ultimate goal of reading synoptically (presenting a summary of the principal parts or a general view of the whole).
Below are the five general steps of critical reading:
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Pre-Reading
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Interpretive Reading
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Critical Reading
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Synoptic Reading
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Post-Reading
(See the handout of the Critical Reading Outline, also provided on the Resources page.)
Ultimately, what we want is the conscious control of our reading skills, so we can move back and forth amidst the various types of reading. How do we do that? The techniques will vary from reader to reader, but in a surefire way to achieve critical reading and true understanding of a text is to be systematic and thorough.